XRD is a characterization technique used for crystalline materials. X-ray diffraction patterns are unique to the periodic atomic arrangements in a specimen and are widely used for phase identification.
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X-Ray Diffraction
XRD is a characterization technique used for crystalline materials. X-ray diffraction patterns are unique to the periodic atomic arrangements in a specimen and are widely used for phase identification. In a diffractometer, incident X-rays are scattered (diffracted) at specific angles from the sample’s lattice planes, resulting in diffraction peaks characteristic of simple’s crystal structure. The diffraction patterns give information like phase, atomic plane spacing (d-spacing), crystal structure, preferred orientation (texture), average grain size, crystallinity, strain, crystallite size, crystal defects, etc.
XRD is used extensively for mineral exploration, identification of new and unknown materials, substrate characterization in integrated circuit production, protein crystallography, solid-state drug analysis, etc. Various XRD configurations are available to suit the type of application.
XRD Variants:
X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) Typically used for the analysis of polycrystalline substances. Samples can be powder, solid, pellet, or thin-films.
X-ray reflectivity (XRR) Good option for multi-layer thin-films characterization for information like layer thickness, density, composition, roughness, etc.
High-resolution XRD (HRXRD) Mostly used for single crystal (epitaxial) thin films and substrate analysis.
Grazing incidence XRD (GI-XRD) Suitable for polycrystalline, substrate deposited, or ion-irradiated thin-films, where traditional XRD might penetrate too deep into the substrate.
Micro XRD Widely used for micron to nm scale crystallographic exploration of samples.
XRD Variants
X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) Typically used for the analysis of polycrystalline substances. Samples can be powder, solid, pellet, or thin-films.
X-ray reflectivity (XRR) Good option for multi-layer thin-films characterization for information like layer thickness, density, composition, roughness, etc.
High-resolution XRD (HRXRD) Mostly used for single crystal (epitaxial) thin films and substrate analysis. Grazing incidence XRD (GI-XRD) Suitable for polycrystalline, substrate deposited, or ion-irradiated thin-films, where traditional XRD might penetrate too deep into the substrate.
Micro XRD Widely used for micron to nm scale crystallographic exploration of samples. Videos
XRD Common Uses
Phase identification in bulk, powder, and thin-film samples
Phase analysis, crystallite size, preferred orientation in polycrystalline compounds.
Crystalline vs. amorphous percentages in samples
Crystallography in a wide range of samples, including inorganic and organic materials, polymers, metals, alloys, composites, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, minerals, and nanomaterials
Detection of faults and defects in crystalline structures, strain distribution in semiconductor materials, residual stress in bulk materials, crystalline impurities in the glass, ceramics, etc.
Advantages
Non-destructive, high-sensitive, and reliable testing
Fast run times (~20 minutes)
Easy sample preparation and operation
Wide range of acceptable samples (single crystal, bulk/powdered, amorphous materials)
Databases with standard diffraction patterns available for thousands of materials
Acceptable thin-films size range: 10um to 2nm
Easy to interpret qualitative and quantitative data
Limitations
Hard to characterize mixed, non-homogenous, multi-phase samples, and non-isometric crystals.
High angle reflections can result in peak overlay.
No depth profile information
Minimum spot size of ~ 20µm
Industries
Microelectronics Semiconductors Thin-films and coatings Glass Manufacturing Heavy Metals and Alloys Energy storage and Batteries Nanomaterials Polymers Forensic Science Geology Automotive Materials Pharmaceuticals Biomedical Research Materials Research
XRD Laboratories
Evans Analytical Group (EAG) Laboratories Element Materials Technology Intertek Group Plc. Attard’s Minerals S&N Labs EMSL Analytical, Inc. Applied Technical Services
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Our network of material testing labs regularly provides X-ray diffraction (XRD) testing for the crystallography of single-crystal substrates, characterizes pharmaceuticals, trace element analysis, etc. for a wide range of samples and industries.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to measure the crystalline content of materials; identify the crystalline phases present; determine the spacing between lattice planes and the length scales over which they persist, and study preferential ordering and epitaxial growth of crystallites from angstroms to nanoscales.
Both operate on the same working principles of X-ray scattering. While X-ray fluorescence (XRF) provides the sample’s chemical composition and is used for rapid surface analysis of samples, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is often used to identify the crystalline phases, differentiate oxidation states, and obtain other crystallographic information.
